Babylonian Mathematics and the Base 60 System

Babylonian Mathematics and the Base 60 System Babylonian mathematics used a sexagesimal (base 60) system that was so functional it remains in effect, albeit with some tweaks, in the 21st century. Whenever people tell time or make reference to the degrees of a circle, they rely on the base 60 system. Base 10 or Base 60 The system surfaced circa 3100 BCE, according to The New York Times. â€Å"The number of seconds in a minute - and minutes in an hour - comes from the base-60 numeral system of ancient Mesopotamia,† the paper noted. Although the system has stood the test of time, it is not the dominant numeral system used today. Instead, most of the world relies on the base 10 system of Hindu-Arabic origin. The number of factors distinguishes the base 60 system from its base 10 counterpart, which likely developed from people counting on both hands. The former system uses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60 for base 60, while the latter uses 1, 2, 5, and 10 for base 10. The Babylonian mathematics system may not be as popular as it once was, but it has advantages over the base 10 system because the number 60 â€Å"has more divisors than any smaller positive integer,† the Times pointed out. Instead of using times tables, the Babylonians multiplied using a formula that depended on knowing just the squares. With only their table of squares (albeit going up to a monstrous 59 squared), they could compute the product of two integers, a and b, using a formula similar to: ab [(a b)2 - (a - b)2]/4. The Babylonians even knew the formula that’s today known as the Pythagorean theorem. History Babylonian math has roots in the numeric system started by the Sumerians, a culture that began about 4000 BCE in Mesopotamia, or southern Iraq, according to ​USA Today. â€Å"The most commonly accepted theory holds that two earlier peoples merged and formed the Sumerians,† USA Today reported. â€Å"Supposedly, one group based their number system on 5 and the other on 12. When the two groups traded together, they evolved a system based on 60 so both could understand it.† That’s because five multiplied by 12 equals 60. The base 5 system likely originated from ancient peoples using the digits on one hand to count. The base 12 system likely originated from other groups using their thumb as a pointer and counting by using the three parts on four fingers, as three multiplied by four equals 12. The main fault of the Babylonian system was the absence of a zero. But the ancient Maya’s vigesimal (base 20) system had a zero, drawn as a shell. Other numerals were lines and dots, similar to what is used today to tally. Measuring Time Because of their mathematics, the Babylonians and Maya had elaborate and fairly accurate measurements of time and the calendar. Today, with the most advanced technology ever, societies still must make temporal adjustments - almost 25 times per century to the calendar and a few seconds every few years to the atomic clock. There’s nothing inferior about modern math, but Babylonian mathematics may make a useful alternative to children who experience difficulty learning their times tables.

Complete Breakdown of Every ACT Reading Question Type

Complete Breakdown of Every ACT Reading Question Type SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips It’s helpful to know how much certain types of questions show up on the ACT Reading section in order to make the most of your studying. We’ve collected data from publicly available ACT tests on the types of questions that show up most frequently. In this article I’ll go through the different question types, how much they show up on the test, and how this information can help you. What Are the ACT Reading Question Types? Before we go through the distribution of question types on the test, I’ll give a brief outline of the different question categories we’ve established and what each one entails. Type 1: Big Picture Questions Big picture questions deal with the main subject of the passage or the narrator’s overall point of view.These types of questions require you to look at the passage holistically rather than focusing on one specific section. Example of a big picture question: The main theme of this passage concerns the: A. difficulty of first starting and then maintaining a friendship.B. process of making a new friend and how the friendship changes the narrator.C. problems the narrator has dealing with the loss of her former neighbors.D. differences in the lives led by two pairs of adults who at different times lived in the same house. Type 2: Little Picture/Detail Questions Little picture/detail questions will ask about a small piece of factual information in a passage.These are the most straightforward questions because they are completely literal; it’s just a matter of finding the correct information. Example of a little picture/detail question: According to the passage, the research that led to the development of the small-comet theory began with a project originally intended to study: A. the electrical activity accompanying sunspots.B. water entering Earth’s upper atmosphere.C. static in satellite transmissions.D. specks in satellite images. Type 3: Vocabulary in Context Questions Vocabulary in context questions ask about the meaning of a word in the context of the passage.They might also give you something in the passage to reference and then ask you to choose the vocabulary word that best describes it.These questions provide a line number for the word they're referencing, so that makes them a bit less time-consuming. Example of a vocabulary in context question: As it is used in line 58, the word humor most nearly means: A. personality.B. whim.C. mood.D. comedy. Type 4: Development and Function Questions Development and function questions askhow a certain paragraph or phrase functions in the context of a passage, how the argument in the passage is developed, or how the author structures the passage.These questions gauge your understanding of how thoughts should be organized in writing in general or why they might be arranged a certain way for a specific argument. Example of a development and function question: The main function of the second paragraph (lines 20-29) is to: A. identify some of Armstrong’s mentors, such as King Oliver.B. list some of the early events in Armstrong’s developing career.C. contrast Armstrong’s opinions of King Oliver and Fletcher Henderson.D. describe the musical style Armstrong developed jointly with Fletcher Henderson. Type 5: Inference Questions Inference questions ask you to make inferences based on a logical extension of information found in the passage.These types of questions are often perceived as difficult and subjective, but they can always be solved by looking at information directly presented in the passage. They just require a couple more steps in your thought process. Example of an inference question: It can reasonably be inferred from the passage that the woman most strongly desires to attain which of the following qualities from dreaming? A. RelaxationB. Self-awarenessC. EntertainmentD. Self-control How does she know....she isn't already in a dream? I have to admit, the special effects almost distracted me from the sheer ridiculousness of this movie. Distribution of Question Types Here is a chart that lists all the different question types on the ACT Reading section along with their average distributions on the test: Question Type Average Number of Questions Percentage of Questions Big Picture 4 10% Little Detail 18 45% Vocabulary in Context 3 8% Development and Function 9 22% Inference 6 15% All Questions 40 100% ACT Reading always presents four types of passages in order on every test: Prose/Literary Fiction, Social Science, Humanities, and Natural Science.I'll go through the different question types again below, explaining their distribution on the test and whether they tend to show up more often with passages in certain topic areas. Big Picture Questions On each of the four publicly available tests we analyzed, we found four questions that could definitively be identified as big picture questions.This covers main point and point of view questions.Essentially, because there are four topic areas on the ACT Reading section, you should expect to see about one big picture question per topic area.They comprise4 out of 40 reading questions on average, so they only make up about 10% of the Reading section. Little Picture/Detail Questions Detail questions are the most common questions on the ACT Reading section.On the tests we analyzed, detail questions made up from 12 to 21 questions out of 40, so as much as half of the entire Reading section.On average, they’re about 45% of each test. This is good news because detail questions are the simplest ones to answer!These questions come down to reading carefully and finding the correct details in the passage. They’re more about time management than critical thinking. Vocabulary in Context Questions Vocabulary in context questions made up a relatively small percentage of questions on the tests we sampled.On one of the tests, we didn’t find any!On average, you can expect there to be about 3 vocabulary in context questions on the Reading section, so less than 10% of questions.This brings home the fact that knowing vocabulary is not very important on the ACT - it’s such a small portion of the test that it’s not going to be significant overall. Vocabulary in context questions tend to show up the most often in the Natural Science topic area, so along with the final passage or pair of passages in the reading section. Development and Function Questions Development and function questions are the second most common question type on the ACT Reading section.You’ll probably see about 7 to 10 function questions on the Reading section, so about 2 for each passage.They made up about20% of questions on each of the tests we analyzed. Development and function questions tend to show up the most often with the Humanities passage or pair of passages, so you'll commonly see them in questions 21-30. Inference Questions Inference questions are also common, but they're not quite as prevalent as function questions.It seems to depend on the test. I saw a wide range in how many inference questions were tested; on one test there were only 3, and on another there were 10.Inference questions usually make up about 15% of questions on the ACT Reading section.Inference questions are relatively even in terms of their distribution across subject areas. Your brain after being ENLIGHTENED. This really confuses me though - isn't the lightbulb supposed to be above your brain? Why is the brain inside the lightbulb? I don't have all the answers. How Does This Information Affect Your Approach to ACT Reading? Here are a few tips based on what we know about question distribution on the ACT Reading section. You can save yourself time by tailoring your approach to the types of questions you'll see most frequently. Adapt Your Passage Reading Strategy The biggest challenge on the ACT Reading section is not the difficulty of the questions - it’s time.Many people run out of time on ACT Reading because they haven’t nailed down a good strategy for reading the passages yet.They move too slowly and miss out on some of the questions. Because detail questions are the most common questions on the ACT, one strategy is to skip the passage initially and head straight for the questions.For questions that ask about a specific detail, it’s not critical to know the overarching structure of the passage. You just need to do a little search and find to locate the relevant detail. Once you answer the detail questions, which make up close to half of the questions for each passage, you will likely have a strong enough sense of the main point of the passage to answer more challenging inference, development and function, and big picture questions.Vocabulary in context questions can usually be answered without reading the passage first as well, since the line number is provided. Of course, if you’re already a fast reader and don’t have trouble with time pressure on the Reading section, feel free to continue to read the passage first.Some people prefer to skim and then head for the questions, but you should know that the distribution of question types on the ACT means that you don’t HAVE to read the whole passage first. Attention to Detail is Key As we now know, little picture/detail questions are the most common question type on the ACT.It follows, then, that attention to detail is critical on the test!I want to stress again that most of these questions are not that hard. What makes them difficult is time pressure along with a few tricky answer choices that you might fall for if you’re rushing. Avoid making assumptions, and don’t rush through the question if you can avoid it.Many of the mistakes students make on the ACT Reading section could be avoided by reading more carefully and paying attention to keywords or details in the passage.If you have any time at the end of the section, go back and check over your answers so that you can be sure you didn’t misread anything. Keep in mind the fact that all questions on the ACT Reading section, not just little detail questions, can be solved successfully by looking closely at the passage and finding direct evidence for your answers. Don’t Worry Too Much About Vocabulary Vocabulary usually gets a lot of attention in standardized test prep because it gives you the opportunity to focus on something concrete. It's evident from the question distribution numbers, however, thatvocabulary is almost a non-issue on the ACT. There will be a few vocabulary in context questions, but the words in these questions are not particularly advanced.These questions require strong reading comprehension skillsso you can understand variations in the meanings of common terms based on context.Your passage reading skills will be much more critical than your vocabulary knowledge when answering vocabulary in context questions. NOT TODAY! Summary There are five types of questions that you’ll encounter on the ACT Reading section: Big Picture Little Detail Vocabulary in Context Development and Function Inference The most common are little detail questions, then development and function questions, then inference questions, and finally big picture and vocabulary in context questions with about the same frequency. Based on this information about question distribution, you should: Read passages more strategically Pay close attention to detail Reduce time spent on studying vocabulary Now that you know the types of questions you'll see on the ACT Reading section, you can feel even more secure in your preparedness for the test! What's Next? For more information about ACT Reading, check out my other articles on the hardest questions you'll see on the Reading section and thefundamental strategyyou need to know to succeed on ACT Reading. You should also take a look at our guide to getting a perfect 36 on the Reading section if you're applying to very competitive colleges. If you're taking the ACT soon, read this article on the best way to practice for the Reading section! Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this English lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Runic Alphabets in Scandinavia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Runic Alphabets in Scandinavia - Essay Example Sadly, the meanings of these symbols and their purpose are now lost. Like runes, they were believed to be used for divination and they may have strongly influenced the magical function of later runic alphabets (Smith 1996). Historians and anthropologists are uncertain about the early uses of runes. They may have been used as actual characters for writing. However, the name rune suggests that they were also used as mystical signs or symbols which possess powerful magic. Early Germanic literature bear testimony to the magical character of runes. The Edda, a series of poems, and folk songs to these modern days attest to the influence that runes have on humanity. In fact, the supernatural powers of runes are said to have not only influence, but can overcome natural and physical laws. Runes can summon rain or violent thunderstorms. They can break chains and shackles, or bind men into them. They can heal illness or cause someone to suffer disease. They could raise the dead from their graves. Warriors can become invincible with the help of runes, and cause his weapon to inflict mortal wounds to the enemy. Runes can make men mad, as they can also protect men from the deceitful designs of others. Runes are generally considered as of divine origin, since Odin himself, as related in the Edda, had to sacrifice his person in order to learn the secrets of the runes. Odin was also the foremost runemaster, according to Germanic literature, and was known to have used the stones to exercise personal revenge. Simultaneous with the magical use of runes, there is also evidence that they were used as a means of communication. These messages may have been popular or used in secret. Saga of Egill Skallagrmsson, his daughter Thorger apparently carved the Sunatorrek -- a beautiful poem on a runic staff or runakefli -- where Egill laments the death of his son. Stone monuments are also lasting evidence of the roles played by runes in olden times. These are more common in England and Scandinavia. Some of these monuments simply bear the name of a fallen warrior. Others relate his life and exploits. Since these runic inscriptions were often found in England and Scandinavia, it could be inferred that the use of runes for such purpose may be a later development (Ward & Waller, ed.). II. Discussion A. General Development and Transformation of Runes Runes are also known as Futharks, named for the first six letters in their alphabet, namely, F, U, Th, A, R, and K. The Elder Futhark has 24 letters, the Younger Futhark has 16 letters. Futhark was brought into England by the Anglo-Saxons and transformed into the 33-letter Futhorc, which accommodated the phonetic changes which occurred in Old English (AncientScripts.com). The runes of Scandinavia can be classified into three periods. They are also not related to the Futhorc of the Anglo-Saxon. The first period dates from around 175 A.D. to the 8th century. However, some evidence show that the period may have started much earlier, as far back as 50 A.D. This period is referred to as the Primitive Norse, and Christianity had not yet reached that far north. The language was called Primitive Old Norse for the Nordic Inscriptions and were in Germanic or Gothic languages in lands farther south. The language of this

Entrepreneurial Innovations Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Entrepreneurial Innovations - Research Paper Example In addition, the wide-ranging availability of the Internet for performing business-related tasks of the businesses, sellers, and buyers is the primary reason behind the development of electronic commerce (or simply e-commerce). Actually, â€Å"electronic commerce is the method of selling and purchasing services and goods and products performed electronically by means of computerized business transactions over the Internet, networks, and other digital technologies† (Laudon & Laudon, 1999, p. 25; Stair & Reynolds, 2003, p. 19). There are different kinds of innovations in the context of IT, which can be implemented by an organization to upgrade their business processes. For instance, an organization can automate their business process, implement an e-commerce portal or use the Internet for marketing strategies and so on. Innovation in the context of organizational change also plays a significant function in the business organizations. No matter, whether a business organization is going to formulate or launch a new product, or going to introduce a new service, or going to invent and put into practice a technological invention that can change the business processes or a new management tool or technique, innovation, and organizational change helps the business organization develop and put into operation a business strategy and infrastructure. In fact, many business organizations invest a higher proportion of their finances in forming and implementing an innovation strategy than others.  

Compulsory and Voluntary Voting Policies in Democracy

Compulsory and Voluntary Voting Policies in Democracy The right to a free and fair vote is a staple in the democratic process. However, there is debate over whether or not this process is best implemented when the population has the choice to engage in the political system or whether or not it should be mandated.[1] Many people claim that the best system to follow is the one that they are a part of, however in countries where different voting policies are implemented; there is empirical data that can be used to determine whether compulsory voting or voluntary voting produces better results and whether it tends to enhance the quality of democracy. Yet many people will still argue that just analyzing empirical data is not enough to determine whether or not compulsory voting more democratic due to intrinsic reasons. Both of these approaches make it difficult to discern whether or not compulsory voting is more democratically favourable however upon analysis of the two different voting systems, I have found that the arguments that oppose com pulsory voting are not substantive enough to discredit the evidence as to why it does improve upon the essence of democracy. That is why in this essay I argue that compulsory voting does enhance the quality of democracy. What does it mean to enhance the quality of democracy and what is the importance of determining how to advance it? Democracy, at its most basic definition, means the rule by the people. When analyzing the quality of democracy of a state, what is being analyzed is how well the citizens of that state (the people) are represented in the policies that are passed. If the democratic representatives of the government pass laws that a majority of the people in the state do not want, then the quality of democracy is poor. It is not the people that are ruling in this case, but rather the elite few. The issue of compulsory versus voluntary voting is a very relevant issue in todays day and age because a lot of people are disenfranchised by politics. People lose faith in their political system because they feel like they are not being represented. This in turn leads to a less politically active society which is not concerned by the issues that affect them and then often times their lives are made worse due to their lack of input in the policies that are passed. This circular downwards spiral further alienates people and future voters, demonstrating the need for maximizing representation in democratic political systems. The quality of the system cannot be improved until the people are represented to the nations fullest potential. When analyzing which voting system would be the best to implement in order to enhance democracy, it is important to evaluate societies where these different voting styles are implemented. The American voting system is an ideal case study when considering the effects of voluntary voting. The United States and its citizens pride themselves on being a shining example of freedom and democracy. To many people across the world, it has become synonymous with the idea of a perfect democratic system which all other nations strive to achieve. However statistically, the vast majority of citizens in the United States are very poorly represented by their democratic government[2]. For example, a study done by Princeton and Northwestern Universities found that on economic policies, the policy preferences of the average citizen only get implemented less than 20% of the time while the policies preferred by business interests and economic elites are implemented the vast majority of the time, demonstra ting how the median citizen or median voter at the heart of theories of Majoritarian Electoral Democracy does not do well when put up against economic elites and organized interest groups[3]. This in turn leads to the main flaw with the voluntary voting system. People refuse to be involved in the democratic process because they lose faith in their representatives. This in turn leads to worse social and economic situations for the majority of citizens in the state. The United States is a prime example of this. The United States has a relatively low election turnout rate, ranking 22nd in the modern world.[4] The United States is also has the highest total global personal wealth yet 80.56% of that wealth resides among the top few.[5] In fact, more than three quarters of all Americans are living paycheck-to-paycheck.[6] With a voluntary voting system, the American government tends to leave the people behind in favour big money interests. A defining argument in favour of compulsory votin g is that compulsory voting will alleviate the socio-economic inequalities in a society because if everyone voices which policies they want to see implemented into their law, then the politicians will be severely pressured into pushing for those policies if they wish to stay elected, and hence policies that benefit the majority of the people will be implemented.[7] Americans and others who believe in that voluntary voting is more beneficial than compulsory voting will refute this claim by stating that if you force non-politically active citizens to vote, you cannot infer that they will vote in their own interests because they would not have a good understanding on who to vote for to implement their ideas.[8] They claim that people who would stay home and not vote in a voluntary system would just vote arbitrarily in a compulsory system. The flaw with this objection is that it assumes that everyone who doesnt vote does so because they have absolutely zero interest in voting. There are many reasons that people do not vote in a voluntary system other than being apolitical. For example, voting could be a large enough inconvenience for so poorer people so they decide to stay home.[9] People also choose not to vote even though they have policy opinions because they believe their vote is just one in a million so it doesnt make a difference and furthermore could just lack the motivation to express vote.[10] If all these people were pressured to vote, the elected representatives would better represent the views of the overall population and democracy would be enhanced. Australias voting system is the antithesis of Americas. If you are over 18, it is your legal duty to register to vote and to go the polls. Failure to do this will result in a fine and a potential day in court.[11] This form of pressure is meant to increase the participation levels in elections and better represent the will of the public. Multiple studies have been done checking if this theory translates to real world policy and they all come to the same conclusion: [Compulsory voting] can increase the salience of elections and make voting more rational and meaningful and it can enhance and protect such values as representativeness, legitimacy and political equality. It also has the potential to break the counterproductive cycle of low efficacy, alienation, non-participation and state neglect that has led to an increasingly moribund political culture.[12] The studies found that compulsory voting remedied one of the biggest problems with voluntary voting which is the Socio-economic status voting gap.[13] When observing the history of Australias voting population before the compulsory voting law was passed, it was revealed that turnout disproportionally represented those in higher socio-economic status while many people who were in a lower economic status abstained from voting for a various amount of reasons.[14] Many people who argue in favour of voluntary voting disagree with the idea that the socio-economic status voting gap should be addressed by compulsory voting because they claim that if peoples lives were already very burdensome so much so that they didnt vote when they had the opportunity because it was so inconvenient, then there shouldnt be a law that inconveniences them further by forcing them to vote.[15] The problem with this argument is that it misses the fact that peoples lives became less burdensome because of them bein g represented in their system[16], and so compulsory voting was for their own good, and hence the quality of democracy improved. When evaluating whether or not compulsory voting enhances democracy, people who  support voluntary voting say that simply analyzing statistics is not enough. They claim that a reflection must be done on whether compulsory voting is right by the fundamental nature of democracy. One of the aspects in measuring the legitimacy of democracy is checking if there is A free and independent citizenry[17]. This means that the public has absolute freedom of speech and a right to protest, demonstrate, and preach with dissent from the government. The argument then comes up that abstention from voting is a form of expression, and therefore any attempt to remove this democratic right would be dictatorial and would actually be diminishing democracy, not enhancing it.[18] However, this claim is refuted by the idea of the social contract. The social contract is the pillar upon which authority is given legitimacy in a democratic state. By choosing to live in a democratic system, the collective is obl igated to contribute to certain areas of society. As with paying taxes and jury duty, compulsory voting is just another duty that the citizens of a state are obligated to comply with under the social contract. Since the social contract is the strongest case made for accepting authority in a democracy, then having compulsory voting as a citizen duty would not tarnish the quality of a democracy because it would seen as legitimate. In countries like Australia where compulsory voting has become the status-quo, it is not thought of as dictatorial or tyrannical in anyway.[19] It has become a culturally accepted norm. However, countries where this idea is viewed as taboo would view this as an attack on freedom. A case study by Lisa Hill on Americas low voter turnout found that the idea of being compelled to vote is anathema to many Americans and it would undoubtedly meet with vigorous resistance on a number of fronts.[20] Unless there is a cultural shift that would allow the assimilation o f these kinds of new ideas, compelling people to vote could possibly weaken the quality of democracy in countries like America because their citizenry would have a difficult time integrating it into their established system. However, there are ways to remedy these rejections of policy. Hill explains that methods that have been approached to improve public acceptance of compulsory voting were to clarify existing requirements, give the people optional preferential voting, and to expand the voters option for political expressions. The objections to implementing compulsory voting are rooted in status-quo biases and are under the assumption that it is not possible to change the cultural views of citizens on policies which have not been adapted yet. These objections falls flat due to these policies being implemented into other countries successfully through smart execution plans and therefore it has increased the quality of democracy, not decreased it. Compulsory voting enhances the quality of democracy because it provides a better representation the needs of all the people in society. When analyzing a country without compulsory voting such as America, it is found that the views of the people are not what is represented by the policies that end up being passed because a large majority of the people who tend to be lower class do not engage in their political system. However, in a country that does have compulsory voting such as Australia, the socio-economic status voting gap is greatly diminished and the policies that end up being passed are more representative of what the people want. Many common objections to compulsory voting are that it is burdensome and it decreases freedom. These objections do not hold up because in countries where it is implemented, the system ends up benefitting more people and becomes culturally accepted to the point where it does not become an issue. Therefore, compulsory voting does end up producing bette r results and improves the quality of democracy. Bibliography Beck, Katie. Australia election: Why is voting compulsory? BBC News, August 27, 2013. DeSilver, Drew. U.S. voter turnout trails most developed countries. Pew Research Center, August 02, 2016. Gilens, Martin, and Benjamin I. Page. Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens. Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 3 (2014): 564-581. Heywood, Andrew. Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. Sathel, Trevor. Pros and Cons: A Debaters Handbook. London: Routledge. 1999. Hill, Lisa. Compulsory Voting in Australia: A Basis for a Best Practice Regime. Federal Law Review 32 (2004): 479-497, http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/fedlr32div=30g_sent=1collection=journals Hill, Lisa. Low Voter Turnout in the United States Journal of Theoretical Politics 18(2): 207-232, http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0951629806061868 Hill, Lisa. Public Acceptance of Compulsory Voting: Explaining the Australian Case. Representation 46:4 (2010): 425-438http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00344893.2010.518089 Johnson, Angela . 76% of Americans are living paycheck-to-paycheck. CNNMoney, June 24, 2013. Martin Gilens, and Benjamin I. Page. Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens. Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 3 (2014), 564-581. Sherman, Erik. America is the richest, and most unequal, nation. Fortune, September 30, 2015. [1] Trevor Sathel, Pros and Cons: A Debaters Handbook (London: Routledge, 1999), 75. [2] Martin Gilens, and Benjamin I. Page. Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens. Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 3 (2014), 570-577. [3] Gilens and Page, Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.572-573. [4] Drew DeSilver, U.S. voter turnout trails most developed countries. Pew Research Center, August 02, 2016. [5] Erik Sherman, America is the richest, and most unequal, nation. Fortune, September 30, 2015. [6] Angela Johnson, 76% of Americans are living paycheck-to-paycheck. CNNMoney, June 24, 2013. [7] Gilens and Page, Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.565. [8] Gilens and Page, Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.566. [9] Gilens and Page, Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.565. [10] Gilens and Page, Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.565. [11] Katie Beck, Australia election: Why is voting compulsory? BBC News, August 27, 2013. [12] Lisa Hill, Low Voter Turnout in the United States Journal of Theoretical Politics 18(2): 228. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0951629806061868 [13] Lisa Hill, Compulsory Voting in Australia: A Basis for a Best Practice Regime. Federal Law Review 32 (2004): 480, http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/fedlr32div=30g_sent=1collection=journals [14] Hill, Compulsory Voting in Australia: A Basis for a Best Practice Regime. 480. [15] Sathel, Pros and Cons: A Debaters Handbook, 75. [16] Hill, Compulsory Voting in Australia: A Basis for a Best Practice Regime. 497. [17] Andrew Heywood, Politics (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 86. [18] Sathel, Pros and Cons: A Debaters Handbook, 75. [19] Lisa Hill, Public Acceptance of Compulsory Voting: Explaining the Australian Case. Representation 46:4 (2010), 429, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00344893.2010.518089 [20] Lisa Hill, Low Voter Turnout in the United States, 228.

International Monetary Fund Essay

The question â€Å"To what extent has the International Monetary Fund contributed in revamping the Nigerian economy since the 1980’s?† is a question that helps us to evaluate the true impact of international monetary policy.   In order to further understand the meaning of this question, this paper will examine the following subjects – 1) the meaning of the question, 2) the significance of the question for International Relations scholars, 3) how the question relates to other published work in the area, and 4) what methods would be employed to answer the question. First of all, the question is directly focused on economic impacts.   However, the question is not simply a matter of metrics, because the question is directed at procedural changes as well.   The question is focused on the restructuring of the Nigerian economy.   To only use economic metrics would fail to address the consequences restructuring entails.   When the IMF releases money to a country, they stipulate conditions that the country must meet. Therefore, the question is also directed at the matching the directives of the IMF with the implementation within Nigeria.   The question is not asking if the IMF has had a positive or negative impact on Nigeria, so value judgments can be left aside.   However, there are several hidden economic impacts.   Structural changes to the workforce, changes in occupations, and new roles within the economy are all more difficult to measure, but can be considered a result of economic policy.    Therefore, the question means 1) what are the economic stipulations of the IMF from the 1980’s until now, 2) has the Nigerian government met the requirements of the IMF, 3) what restructuring has occurred within the Nigerian economy as a result of the IMF, 4) what economic measures can be attributed to these changes, and 5) what are the indirect economic impacts of the IMF policies. International relations scholars are interested in this question because the answers yield important data on the impacts of policy.   International relations scholars are often consulted on questions of policy.   It is therefore in their best interest to know the impacts of policies made in the past.   In this regard, they are historians.   First of all, it is critically important for International Relations scholars to understand what the IMF has attempted to revamp within the Nigerian economy by tracing the stipulations as they were made. Additionally, the scholar can look at the Nigerian government’s ability to meet the demands of the IMF.   How well were they able to integrate the changes required by the IMF.   Were there consequences that required new policies in the future?   In tracing these policy changes, the scholar can also piece their own picture together of what the IMF did well (what was effective), and what changes needed to be made in direction in order to achieve effectiveness.   They can also have a unique insight into the culture and politics of Nigeria, as well as the internal culture and politics of the IMF. At this point, the International Relations scholar can also know what economic measures are affected by differing types of policies and requirements.   Additionally, they can make recommendations on what types of correlations can be found between initiative and their impact.   Perhaps some of the most valuable information for International Relations scholars, however, is related to the indirect impact of the IMF’s policies. When looking at the restructuring of the Nigerian economy, the International Relations scholar is able to examine the changes within the population, how people moved around, the changes in families, etc.   This type of information allows for a more comprehensive picture of economic change and the effects policy can have on cultural change.   Also, this may highlight the challenges represented by a more powerful entity interacting with a less powerful entity on a global scale. There has been much written about Nigeria since the 1980’s.   There are environmental reports, malnutrition reports, and economic reports.   However, these all approach Nigeria from a different perspective than the direction of this question.   This question seeks to directly explore the impact of IMF policies and economic aid on the revamping of the Nigerian economy.   As such, this question seeks to provide supporting information of the changes in Nigeria.   It seeks to trace change related to IMF policies alone.    It is impossible to completely know what current conditions in Nigeria are caused solely or even primarily by the IMF policies, however by focusing on the IMF, widespread impacts can be evaluated from IMF policies.   It is taking the infusion of money and change of monetary policy as the starting point and looking for the economic aspects affected.   One of the main sources for research on these types of development programs is found with the World Bank.   A particularly useful document is â€Å"The Evolution of Poverty and Welfare in Nigeria, 1982 – 1992.†[1]Using this document and also information from the IMF, the scholar can tie together the policies of the IMF and the effects. In order to study such a complex issues, a rigorous approach will need to be taken.   It is the most difficult to know the indirect impacts of the IMF’s economic policies.   It is undesirable to claim that changes were a result of IMF policy, if in fact, they owed their existence to a governmental or environmental change.   However, the economy is so closely entwined with all aspects of life, the implications of the IMF policies will be seen to have far-reaching consequences. Therefore, we can begin by examining the Nigerian economy and economic statistics in 1980, and comparing them with the present day to get snapshots of the economic health of Nigeria at these two points in time.   These snapshots, however, encompass other economic influences other than the IMF programs.   Then the specific policies of the IMF and their objectives are compared to the resulting economic changes to see if the stated goals have been achieved via metrics. Also involved in this analysis is the ability of the Nigerian government to implement the changes required by the IMF.  Ã‚   This area of analysis is perhaps the easiest, as the initiatives of the IMF are easily available.   However, information on the implementation and the implementation’s challenges may be more difficult to find.   Looking at a timeline of IMF policies, one can also deduce what was effective or not effective.   If a policy was ineffective, then in a later cycle we should find a correction or an abandonment of the program. The internal structure of the government and economy can also be viewed.   The way that money flows and what directions can be measured.   It is important to see structural change since the 1980’s.   The Nigerian government worked with the IMF to develop the National Economic and Empowerment Development Strategy in 2004.[2]   This document reviews previous policy and also lays the groundwork for future work between the IMF and the Nigerian government. This report focuses on structural changes – highlighting the importance of revamping the Nigerian economy. Additionally, looking at the basic economic unit – the household – can show structural changes ass well.   By looking at these structural changes, the real question about revamping the economy can be answered.   Of course, this type of analysis also looks at the indirect effects of economic change.   These are difficult to measure, but by tracing newspaper stories and major events in Nigeria, it may be possible to trace events back to economic policy decisions. Overall, the question of the effectiveness of the IMF’s policies to restructure the Nigerian economy is a very important question with implications for future policy consideration and also a deeper understanding of the past. Now that the world is becoming smaller and national boundaries are being crossed with money and policy, it is more important than ever to understand the impact of economic policy.   Additionally, with the prevalence of capitalism and modernization, the effects of economic policy on third world nations must have a thorough understanding. Reference List International Monetary Fund, The Nigerian Economic Reform Program, IMF, 2005, retrieved 10 January 2007    World Bank, The Evolution of Poverty and Welfare in Nigeria, 1985-92, World Bank, 1997, retrieved 10 November, 2007, < http://www4.worldbank.org/afr/poverty/databank/DocNav/default.cfm> [1] World Bank, The Evolution of Poverty and Welfare in Nigeria, 1985-92, World Bank, 1997, retrieved 10 November, 2007, < http://www4.worldbank.org/afr/poverty/databank/DocNav/default.cfm> [2] International Monetary Fund, The Nigerian Economic Reform Program, IMF, 2005, retrieved 10 January 2007

The Digital Age Of Film Essay - 1954 Words

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